Investigating the Mediating role of Using Screens in the Relationship Between Parent's Reflective Function and Cognitive Skills in Preschool Children

Document Type : Original Article

Authors

1 Master’s degree in clinical psychology, Department of Psychology, Faculty of education and psychology, Alzahra University,Tehran, Iran.

2 Professor, Department of Psychology, Faculty of education and psychology, Alzahra University,Tehran, Iran.

3 Assistant Professor, Department of Psychology, Faculty of education and psychology, Alzahra University,Tehran, Iran.

Abstract

Aim: This study investigated the relationship between parental reflective functioning and cognitive skills in preschool children, with screen time as a mediating variable.
 
Method: This correlational study used a structural equation modeling approach. The population included mothers of 4–6-year-old children in Tehran in 2023. A sample of 201 mothers was selected via convenience sampling. Data were collected using the Parental Reflective Functioning Questionnaire, the Ages and Stages Questionnaire, and the Screen Time Questionnaire. Analyses were conducted using SPSS-26 and SmartPLS-4.
 
Results: Significant associations were observed among parental reflective functioning, screen time, and children’s cognitive skills. Parental reflective functioning positively predicted screen time (β = 0.61, t = 15.09, p < 0.01), whereas screen time negatively predicted cognitive skills (β = −0.18, t = 1.97, p < 0.05). Parental reflective functioning also showed a direct positive relationship with cognitive skills (β = 0.23, t = 2.00, p < 0.05). Screen time significantly mediated the association between parental reflective functioning and children’s cognitive skills.
 
Conclusion: Parental reflective functioning influences children’s cognitive development both directly and indirectly through screen time. Enhancing reflective functioning and regulating children’s screen exposure may support healthier cognitive outcomes in preschool children.

Keywords

Main Subjects

References

Ahmed, A., Kramer, M. S., Bernard, J. Y., Perez Trejo, M. E., Martin, R. M., Oken, E., & Yang, S. (2020). Early childhood growth trajectory and later cognitive ability: evidence from a large prospective birth cohort of healthy term-born children. International journal of epidemiology, 49(6), 1998-2009.[Link]
Asghari Nikah, M. (2007). The necessity and place of early intervention and preschool education for children with special needs. Exceptional Education. 2007; 8 (74)  [Link]
Axelsson, E. L., Williams, S. E., & Horst, J. S. (2016). The effect of sleep on children's word retention and generalization. Frontiers in psychology, 7, 1192.[Link]
Bakhtiary Javan, S., Farrokhi, N. A., Bakhtiary Javan, S., & Sadeghi, R. (2020). Predicting internet addiction through executive functions; emphasizing on the components of inhibition, working memory and cognitive flexibility among students of Allameh Tabataba'i University. Shenakht Journal of Psychology and Psychiatry, 7(5), 80-91. [Link]
Bal, M., Kara Aydemir, A. G., Tepetaş Cengiz, G. Ş., & Altındağ, A. (2024). Examining the relationship between language development, executive function, and screen time: A systematic review. PloS one, 19(12), e0314540. [Link]
Barr, R., Lauricella, A., Zack, E., & Calvert, S. L. (2010). Infant and early childhood exposure to adult-directed and child-directed television programming: Relations with cognitive skills at age four. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 56(1), 21-48. [Link]
Barr, R., Zack, E., Garcia, A., & Muentener, P. (2008). Infants' attention and responsiveness to television increases with prior exposure and parental interaction. Infancy, 13(1), 30-56. [Link]
Bateman, A., & Fonagy, P. (2010). Mentalization based treatment for borderline personality disorder. World psychiatry : official journal of the World Psychiatric Association (WPA), 9(1), 11–15.[Link]
Bernier, A., Carlson, S. M., & Whipple, N. (2010). From external regulation to self‐regulation: Early parenting precursors of young children’s executive functioning. Child development, 81(1), 326-339. [Link]
Bernier, A., Carlson, S. M., Deschênes, M., & Matte‐Gagné, C. (2012). Social factors in the development of early executive functioning: A closer look at the caregiving environment. Developmental science, 15(1), 12-24. [Link]
Beyens, I., Valkenburg, P. M., & Piotrowski, J. T. (2018). Screen media use and ADHD-related behaviors: Four decades of research. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 115(40), 9875-9881. [Link]
Black, M. M., Walker, S. P., Fernald, L. C., Andersen, C. T., DiGirolamo, A. M., Lu, C & Grantham-McGregor, S. (2017). Early childhood development coming of age: science through the life course. The Lancet, 389(10064), 77-90. [Link]
Bonifacci, P., Trambagioli, N., Bernabini, L., & Tobia, V. (2022). Home activities and cognitive skills in relation to early literacy and numeracy: Testing a multifactorial model in preschoolers. European Journal of Psychology of Education, 37(3), 681-705. [Link]
Bustamante, A. S., Bermudez, V. N., Ochoa, K. D., Belgrave, A. B., & Vandell, D. L. (2023). Quality of early childcare and education predicts high school STEM achievement for students from low-income backgrounds. Developmental Psychology, 59(8), 1440.[Link]
Certain, L. K., & Kahn, R. S. (2002). Prevalence, correlates, and trajectory of television viewing among infants and toddlers. Pediatrics, 109(4), 634-642. [Link]
Cheung, C. H., Bedford, R., Saez De Urabain, I. R., Karmiloff-Smith, A., & Smith, T. J. (2017). Daily touchscreen use in infants and toddlers is associated with reduced sleep and delayed sleep onset. Scientific reports, 7(1), 46104. [Link]
Christakis, D. A., Zimmerman, F. J., DiGiuseppe, D. L., & McCarty, C. A. (2004). Early television exposure and subsequent attentional problems in children. Pediatrics, 113(4), 708-713. [Link]
Clark, D. C., Cifelli, C. J., & Pikosky, M. A. (2020). Growth and development of preschool children (12–60 months): a review of the effect of dairy intake. Nutrients, 12(11), 3556.[Link]
Cooper, A., & Redfern, S. (2015). Reflective parenting: A guide to understanding what's going on in your child's mind. Routledge. [Link]
Dong, G., Hu, Y., & Lin, X. (2013). Reward/punishment sensitivities among internet addicts: Implications for their addictive behaviors. Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry, 46, 139-145. [Link]
Fonagy, P., Gergely, G., & Target, M. (2007). The parent–infant dyad and the construction of the subjective self. Journal of child psychology and psychiatry, 48(3‐4), 288-328. [Link]
Fonagy, P., Luyten, P., & Strathearn, L. (2011). Mentalization and the roots of borderline personality disorder in infancy. International perspectives on children and mental health, 1, 129-153. [Link]
Gordo, L., Martínez-Pampliega, A., Iriarte Elejalde, L., & Luyten, P. (2020). Do parental reflective functioning and parental competence affect the socioemotional adjustment of children?. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 29(12), 3621-3631.[Link]
Gueron-Sela, N., Shalev, I., Gordon-Hacker, A., Egotubov, A., & Barr, R. (2023). Screen media exposure and behavioral adjustment in early childhood during and after COVID-19 home lockdown periods. Computers in Human Behavior, 140, 107572. [Link]
Guinn, A. S., Ports, K. A., Ford, D. C., Breiding, M., & Merrick, M. T. (2019). Associations between adverse childhood experiences and acquired brain injury, including traumatic brain injuries, among adults: 2014 BRFSS North Carolina. Injury prevention, 25(6), 514-520. [Link]
Hisler, G., Twenge, J. M., & Krizan, Z. (2020). Associations between screen time and short sleep duration among adolescents varies by media type: evidence from a cohort study. Sleep medicine, 66, 92-102. [Link]
Huber, B., Yeates, M., Meyer, D., Fleckhammer, L., & Kaufman, J. (2018). The effects of screen media content on young children’s executive functioning. Journal of experimental child psychology, 170, 72-85. [Link]
Hughes, C. H., & Ensor, R. A. (2009). How do families help or hinder the emergence of early executive function?. New directions for child and adolescent development, 2009(123), 35-50. [Link]
Hutton, J. S., Dudley, J., Horowitz-Kraus, T., DeWitt, T., & Holland, S. K. (2020). Associations between screen-based media use and brain white matter integrity in preschool-aged children. JAMA pediatrics, 174(1), e193869-e193869. [Link]
Jago, R., Baranowski, T., Baranowski, J. C., Thompson, D., & Greaves, K. A. (2005). BMI from 3–6 y of age is predicted by TV viewing and physical activity, not diet. International journal of obesity, 29(6), 557-564. [Link]
Kabali, H. K., Irigoyen, M. M., Nunez-Davis, R., Budacki, J. G., Mohanty, S. H., Leister, K. P., & Bonner Jr, R. L. (2015). Exposure and use of mobile media devices by young children. Pediatrics, 136(6), 1044-1050. [Link]
Kazemeini, T., Sepehri Shamloo, Z., Mashhadi, A., & Moddares Gharravi, M. (2018). Reflective functioning factors in parents of children with separation anxiety disorder: a qualitative research. Quarterly Journal of Child Mental Health, 5(3), 181-192.[Link]
Kildare, C. A., & Middlemiss, W. (2017). Impact of parents mobile device use on parent-child interaction: A literature review. Computers in Human Behavior, 75, 579-593. [Link]
Kirkorian, H. L., Choi, K., & Pempek, T. A. (2016). Toddlers’ word learning from contingent and noncontingent video on touch screens. Child development, 87(2), 405-413. [Link]
Komanchuk, J., Dewey, D., Giesbrecht, G. F., Hart, M., Anis, L., Ntanda, H., ... & Letourneau, N. (2022). Association between maternal reflective function and preschool children’s cognitive abilities. Frontiers in Psychology, 13, 995426. [Link]
Krink, S., Muehlhan, C., Luyten, P., Romer, G., & Ramsauer, B. (2018). Parental reflective functioning affects sensitivity to distress in mothers with postpartum depression. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 27, 1671-1681. [Link]
Lakicevic, N., Manojlovic, M., Chichinina, E., Drid, P., & Zinchenko, Y. (2025). Screen time exposure and executive functions in preschool children. Scientific Reports, 15(1), 1839.[Link]
Lan, Q. Y., Chan, K. C., Kwan, N. Y., Chan, N. Y., Wing, Y. K., Li, A. M., & Au, C. T. (2020). Sleep duration in preschool children and impact of screen time. Sleep medicine, 76, 48-54. [Link]
Landry, S. H., Smith, K. E., & Swank, P. R. (2006). Responsive parenting: establishing early foundations for social, communication, and independent problem-solving skills. Developmental psychology, 42(4), 627. [Link]
Lauricella, A. R., Pempek, T. A., Barr, R., & Calvert, S. L. (2010). Contingent computer interactions for young children's object retrieval success. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 31(5), 362-369. [Link]
Lee, S., Kim, D., & Shin, Y. (2024). Screen time among preschoolers: exploring individual, familial, and environmental factors. Clinical and experimental pediatrics, 67(12), 641.[Link]
Levante, A., Martis, C., Gemma, M., & Lecciso, F. (2025). Paternal child‐focused reflective functioning, parental sense of competence, and parental emotions recognition. Family Relations.[Link]
Lin, L. Y., Cherng, R. J., Chen, Y. J., Chen, Y. J., & Yang, H. M. (2015). Effects of television exposure on developmental skills among young children. Infant behavior and development, 38, 20-26. [Link]
Linebarger, D. L., Barr, R., Lapierre, M. A., & Piotrowski, J. T. (2014). Associations between parenting, media use, cumulative risk, and children's executive functioning. Journal of Developmental & Behavioral Pediatrics, 35(6), 367-377. [Link]
Luyten, P., Campbell, C., Allison, E., & Fonagy, P. (2020). The mentalizing approach to psychopathology: State of the art and future directions. Annual review of clinical psychology, 16, 297-325. [Link]
Luyten, P., Fonagy, P., Lowyck, B., & Vermote, R. (2012). Assessment of mentalization. [Link]
Luyten, P., Mayes, L. C., Nijssens, L., & Fonagy, P. (2017). The parental reflective functioning questionnaire: Development and preliminary validation. PloS one, 12(5), e0176218. [Link]
Luyten, P., Nijssens, L., Fonagy, P., & Mayes, L. C. (2017). Parental reflective functioning: Theory, research, and clinical applications. The Psychoanalytic Study of the Child, 70(1), 174-199. [Link]
Madsen, E. B., Væver, M. S., Egmose, I., Krogh, M. T., Haase, T. W., de Moor, M. H., & Karstoft, K. I. (2023). Parental reflective functioning in first-time parents and associations with infant socioemotional development. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 32(7), 2140-2152.[Link]
Magee C, Blunden S. (2020). Sleep timing during adolescence: a latent transition analysis approach. Behav. Sleep Med, 18, 131-146.. [Link]
Magee, C. A., Lee, J. K., & Vella, S. A. (2014). Bidirectional relationships between sleep duration and screen time in early childhood. JAMA pediatrics, 168(5), 465-470. [Link]
McHarg G, Ribner A, Devine R, Hughes C. (2020). Infant screen exposure links to toddlers’ inhibition, but not other EFconstructs: a propensity score study. Infancy, 25, 205-222. [Link]
McHarg, G., Ribner, A. D., Devine, R. T., & Hughes, C. (2020). Screen time and executive function in toddlerhood: A longitudinal study. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, 570392. [Link]
Nathanson, A. I., & Rasmussen, E. E. (2011). TV viewing compared to book reading and toy playing reduces responsive maternal communication with toddlers and preschoolers. Human Communication Research, 37(4), 465-487. [Link]
Nielsen, M., Simcock, G., & Jenkins, L. (2008). The effect of social engagement on 24‐month‐olds’ imitation from live and televised models. Developmental science, 11(5), 722-731. [Link]
Nikkelen, S. W., Valkenburg, P. M., Huizinga, M., & Bushman, B. J. (2014). Media use and ADHD-related behaviors in children and adolescents: A meta-analysis. Developmental psychology, 50(9), 2228. [Link]
Nikken, P., & de Haan, J. (2021). Guiding young children’s digital media use: Parental mediation and child outcomes. Computers in Human Behavior, 118, 106676. [Link]
Ordway, M. R., Webb, D., Sadler, L. S., & Slade, A. (2015). Parental reflective functioning: An approach to enhancing parent-child relationships in pediatric primary care. Journal of Pediatric Health Care, 29(4), 325-334. [Link]
Pazzagli, C., Delvecchio, E., Raspa, V., Mazzeschi, C., & Luyten, P. (2018). The parental reflective functioning questionnaire in mothers and fathers of school-aged children. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 27, 80-90. [Link]
Poon-McBrayer, K. F. (2012). Bridging policy–practice gap: Protecting rights of youth with learning disabilities in Hong Kong. Children and Youth Services Review, 34(9), 1909-1914. [Link]
Qu, G., Hu, W., Meng, J., Wang, X., Su, W., Liu, H., ... & Sun, Y. (2023). Association between screen time and developmental and behavioral problems among children in the United States: evidence from 2018 to 2020 NSCH. Journal of psychiatric research, 161, 140-149. [Link]
Radesky, J. S., Kistin, C. J., Zuckerman, B., Nitzberg, K., Gross, J., Kaplan-Sanoff, M., ... & Silverstein, M. (2014). Patterns of mobile device use by caregivers and children during meals in fast food restaurants. Pediatrics, 133(4), e843-e849. [Link]
Radesky, J. S., Schumacher, J., & Zuckerman, B. (2015). Mobile and interactive media use by young children: the good, the bad, and the unknown. Pediatrics, 135(1), 1-3. [Link]
Rangani, N. , Ashori, M. , Norouzi, G. and Hallahan, D. P. (2025). Effect of Parenting Based on Acceptance and Commitment on Parenting Ability in Mothers of Children with Hearing Loss. Applied Psychology, (), [Link]
Rashed, H. , Amin Yazdi, S. A. and Bordbar, M. (2025). The Relationship Between Mother's Attachment Dimensions and Child's Emotion Regulation: The Mediating Role of Irrational Beliefs and Mother's Reflective Function. Applied Psychology, 19(1), 77-102. [Link]
Ribner, A. D., Coulanges, L., Friedman, S., Libertus, M. E., Hughes, C., Foley, S., ... & Silver, A. (2021). Screen time in the coronavirus 2019 era: international trends of increasing use among 3-to 7-year-old children. The Journal of pediatrics, 239, 59-66. [Link]
Rostad, W. L., & Whitaker, D. J. (2016). The association between reflective functioning and parent–child relationship quality. Journal of child and family studies, 25, 2164-2177. [Link]
Rutherford, H. J., Goldberg, B., Luyten, P., Bridgett, D. J., & Mayes, L. C. (2013). Parental reflective functioning is associated with tolerance of infant distress but not general distress: Evidence for a specific relationship using a simulated baby paradigm. Infant Behavior and Development, 36(4), 635-641. [Link]
Scionti, N., Cavallero, M., Zogmaister, C., & Marzocchi, G. M. (2020). Is cognitive training effective for improving executive functions in preschoolers? A systematic review and meta-analysis. Frontiers in psychology, 10, 2812. [Link]
Sechi C, Vismara L, Rollè L, Prino LE and Lucarelli L (2020) First-Time Mothers’ and Fathers’ Developmental Changes in the Perception of Their Daughters’ and Sons’ Temperament: Its Association With Parents’ Mental Health. Front. Psychol.[Link]
Sharp, C., & Fonagy, P. (2008). The parent's capacity to treat the child as a psychological agent: Constructs, measures and implications for developmental psychopathology. Social development, 17(3), 737-754. [Link]
Shokoohi-Yekta M, Parand A, Dargahi M. Family-Based Preventive Interventions: Effects on Parent-Child Relationship and Parenting Styles. J Child Ment Health 2016; 3 (2) :55-63.‎[Link]
Slade, A. (2005). Parental reflective functioning: An introduction. Attachment & human development, 7(3), 269-281. [Link]
Strawson, G. (2010). Mental Reality, with a new appendix. mit Press. [Link]
Stuhrmann, L. Y., Göbel, A., Bindt, C., & Mudra, S. (2022). Parental reflective functioning and its association with parenting behaviors in infancy and early childhood: A systematic review. Frontiers in psychology, 13, 765312.[Link]
Supanitayanon, S., Trairatvorakul, P., & Chonchaiya, W. (2020). Screen media exposure in the first 2 years of life and preschool cognitive development: a longitudinal study. Pediatric Research, 88(6), 894-902. [Link]
Tahmassian, K., Mootabi, F., Chimeh, N., Anari, A., Anari, R., & Taheri Far, Z. (2017). SITUATION ANALYSIS OF IRANAIN FAMILIES: CONCEPT OF HEALTHY FAMILY, RECOGNIZING FEATURES OF IRANAIN HEALTHY FAMILY AND TRAUMATIC FACTORS FROM THE EXPERT’S VIEW. Nursing And Midwifery Journal, 15(8), 630-641.‎[Link]
Tamana, S. K., Ezeugwu, V., Chikuma, J., Lefebvre, D. L., Azad, M. B., Moraes, T. J., ... & Mandhane, P. J. (2019). Screen-time is associated with inattention problems in preschoolers: Results from the CHILD birth cohort study. PloS one, 14(4), e0213995. [Link]
Vandewater, E. A., Bickham, D. S., & Lee, J. H. (2006). Time well spent? Relating television use to children's free-time activities. Pediatrics, 117(2), e181-e191. [Link]
Wang, X., Wu, Y., Yao, C., Wu, X., Ruan, Y., & Ye, S. (2022). Correlates of preschoolers’ screen time in China: Parental factors. BMC pediatrics, 22(1), 417.[Link]
Zhou Z, Zhou H, Zhu H. (2016). Working memory, executive function and impulsivity in Internet-addictive disorders: a comparison with patho- logical gambling. Acta Neuropsychiatrica, 28(2), 92-100. [Link]
Zimmerman, F. J., Christakis, D. A., & Meltzoff, A. N. (2007). Television and DVD/video viewing in children younger than 2 years. Archives of pediatrics & adolescent medicine, 161(5), 473-479. [Link]

Files

Share

How to cite

Statistics